This protection can come only from the political organization of the world. The aims of this paper is to argue that, as a maxim for moral responsibility, endorsing PAP as a sufficient condition is as effective as presenting it as a necessary condition. In the following sentence, underline the collective noun once. In his opening sentence, Wright implores us not to childishly try to tear the city down to get the green country in and set the city up in it again on its old site feudal towers a little further apart, in an obvious first punch. As is well documented, this scenario led Frankfurt to conclude that PAP is false because, intuitively, we want to assign moral responsibility to Jones in this situation even though clauses (a) and/or (b) are not met and so he could not have done otherwise: a necessary condition for moral responsibility under the original PAP. Now the doctrine that coercion and moral responsi- What is it supposed to show, and why? The Role of History in Franck's Fairness931 20 Ibid, at 86. This further condition which I am calling twin world explains why we are still justified in assigning moral responsibility to an agent who fails to satisfy PAP in the manner described within Frankfurts counter-example. ), Faith, freedom, and rationality (pp. From a progressive modernist's point of view, it was a further exercise of freedom. Young, G. (2007). 231248). Therefore, only lacks of mutual trust, and not lack of desire for agreement, can stand in the path of an efficient agreement for the prevention of nuclear warfare. Typically, we want to ascribe moral responsibility to Jones because he decided to carry out an act that, let us say, we judge to be morally reprehensible. By Charles Yu. The manner in which alternate possibilities are presented differs, though, within each of the sufficient conditions discussed. is wrong with it, and describe briefly and without argument how it might appropriately be revised. Alternate possibilities (or at least an alternate possibility) are therefore necessary in some form for the ascription of moral responsibility (as we have seen), but acknowledging this is not the same as saying that it is necessary that S could have done otherwise on a given occasion (as is required by the original PAP). Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. What does Frankfurt mean by "wholehearted commitment"? rock creek ranch bc contemporaries who agreed with franck's argument. Answer: Explanation: Background In 1938, a small group of German scientists accidentally discovered nuclear fission. Amenities are spread along the highways and homes are nestled in parks and gardens and small farms, all surrounded by beautiful natural landscapes; Wright argues that 1,000 people to the hectare (2.47 acres) is looking not so far ahead. They observed that a radioactive atom releases a huge burst of energy when it is split. Where this is not the cases, as expressed within (3) then we must conclude that intervention has occurred in W1, thereby explaining the incongruence across worlds. Many different political ideologies were represented in the Republic, Which statement best explains why many Germans became discontented with the Weimar Republic in the early 1930s-, Germany experienced widespread unemployment and inflated prices. The scientific facts on which construction is based are well known to scientists of other countries. Published By: Journal of Philosophy, Inc. Although important tactical results undoubtedly can be achieved by a sudden introduction of nuclear weapons, we nevertheless think that the question of the use of the very first available atomic bombs in the Japanese war should be weighed very carefully, not only by military authorities, but by the highest political leadership of this country. If he changed his SOD, it would not make a difference. Why Frankfurt-examples dont need to succeed to succeed. 13. Responsibility and inevitability. An agreement on a higher level, involving more mutual trust and understanding, would be to allow unlimited production, but keep exact bookkeeping on the fate of each pound of uranium mined. The answer is that all that these advantages can give us is the accumulation of a larger number of bigger and better atomic bombs. I therefore seek to distinguish between alternative possibilities in the form of the alleged necessity of being able to do otherwise on a given occasion, which S cannot satisfy in Frankfurt-style scenarios, and which I do not consider to be necessary for the ascription of moral responsibility (although, to reiterate, I accept it is sufficient), and the role played by alternative possibilities in the twin world condition. 1969 Journal of Philosophy, Inc. B A For terms and use, please refer to our Terms and Conditions Question 10. What would have to occur in order for the twin world condition not to be satisfied? Enough to make our 1st order desire free, but is it enough to explain responsibility. Google Scholar. c) In addition, I provide a further sufficient condition for moral responsibility the twin world condition and argue that this provides a means of justifying why the protagonist in Frankfurt-style scenarios (e.g., Jones) is still felt to be morally responsible. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 80(2), 440446. 23 Ibid, at 119. Philosophical Explorations, 8(2), 131143. A number of theorists have concerned themselves with the question of whether alternate possibilities nevertheless remain amounting to a flicker of freedom (Fischer 2002) and therefore whether Frankfurt-style counter-examples in general constitute a legitimate challenge to PAP (see Fischer 1994; Janzen 2013; Leon and Tognazzini 2010; Palmer 2011; Schnall 2001; Young 2007, by way of a small selection of papers on this). They did not become known as "The Federalist Papers" until the 20th century. Believing that this separation would solve both pedestrian safety and automobile traffic concerns, Le Corbusier states that [t]he only solution is to restore to the pedestrian the surface of the city, all the surface, the earth. Believing that the society of his day was not properly utilizing the machines which they had created, and that the current cities were all outdated, the core of Le Corbusiers ideas for Ville Radieuse is epitomized in the description, knowledge, ethics, and esthetics, all are one, expressed in architecture; a new unity.. A REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF WAR, JUNE 1945. Jones is therefore morally responsible for his action (even in a world corresponding to W1) in virtue of doing what he would have done in a world where alternate possibilities exist (namely, W2). England, France and the smaller nations of the European continent, with their congeries of people and industries would be in a particularly desperate situation in the face of such a threat. What is necessary is that either PAP(s) or the twin world condition is satisfied. We believe that our acquaintance with the scientific elements of the situation and prolonged preoccupation with its world-wide political implications, imposes on us the obligation to offer to the Committee some suggestions as to the possible solution of these grave problems. Explain the "Frankfurt case" of Jones & Black argument against PAP. Journal of Philosophy, 68(11), 339345. In the latter case, alternative possibilities are used in a more hypothetical context to assess if S would have been affected by their availability to the point of selecting one of these options should they have been available. One possible way to introduce nuclear weapons to the world -- which may particularly appeal to those who consider nuclear bombs primarily as a secret weapon developed to help with the present war -- is to use them without warning on appropriately selected objects in Japan. Supporters of the bombings generally believe that they prevented an invasion of the Japanese mainland, saving more lives than they took by doing so. The disagreement began on January 3, 1932, when Le Corbusier published an article in The Times which ran under the title A Noted Architect Dissects Our Cities Le Corbusier Indicts Them as Cataclysms and Describes His Ideal Metropolis. Discussing cities like Paris, New York, and Chicago, Le Corbusier explains his vision for what we know today as Ville Radieuse, which he calls in the article the Green City. This argument is one of the most widespread and powerful still being debated in academic and intellectual circles today, and it is important to understand it. On the other hand, neither did Wright succeed in his wishes to rid our cities of skyscrapers and landlords (and in fact proposed his own mile-high skyscraper two decades later.) Connect to ambivalence. The certainty that German scientists were working on this weapon and that their government would certainly have no scruples against using it when available, was the main motivation of the initiative which American scientists took in urging the development of nuclear power for military purposes on a large scale in this country. Within ten years other countries may have nuclear bombs, each of which, weighing less than a ton, could destroy an urban area of more than ten square miles. (I focused on the second version). The twin world condition is likewise not necessary because one may not be required to compare Ss action in W1 with W2, owing to the fact that S is not performing E in a world without alternate possibilities (e.g., W2); in which case, PAP(s) applies. If no choice of targets, with a total area of five hundred square miles of American territory, contains a large enough fraction of the nation's industry and population to make their destruction a crippling blow to the nation's war potential and its ability to defend itself, then the attack will not pay, and may not be undertaken. As long as nuclear bombs remain scarce (i.e. ArchDaily 2008-2023. In R. Kane (Ed. During that year, the international Jean Piaget Society was formed, and the society, as well as Piaget's influence, endure. Why deck or double-deck or triple-deck the city streets at a cost of billions of dollars, only to invite increase and meet inevitable defeat? Wright asks of Le Corbusiers autostrades. He received his LL.M. Example 1. , tions that representatives take on the basis of their party caucuses Given mutual trust and willingness on all sides to give up a certain part of their sovereign rights, by admitting international control of certain phases of national economy, the control could be exercised (alternatively or simultaneously) on two different levels. We now consider the question of how an effective international control of nuclear armaments can be achieved. Russia, and even allied countries which bear less mistrust of our ways and intentions, as well as neutral countries may be deeply shocked by this step. PAP(s) is, however, not vulnerable to Frankfurts counter-example, as I shall now demonstrate. Where S engages in action E, if (a) and (b) are satisfied then S is morally responsible for E. Stating this does not negate the possibility that S could still be held morally responsible for E, however, even where (a) and/or (b) fail to be satisfied, should another sufficient condition (as yet unspecified) be met. Persons are 'wholhearted' when there are no conflicts in their wills and they are not ambivalent about what they want to do. We can allow that clauses (a) and (b) are violated because such violation does not negate the possibility that Jones is nevertheless morally responsible for his action: for some other condition (as yet to be identified) could exist that is sufficient to justify the claim that Jones is morally responsible, even though he could not have done other than he did. For the ascription of moral responsibility, it is my contention that it is not necessary that S could have done otherwise, as required by PAP in its original formulation. "For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent.". Written in 1531, likely at the beginning of the year, this work stands temporally in the middle of Marpeck's controversy with the Geister. The attitude of American public opinion, mentioned earlier, in the matter of the use of poison gas against Japan, shows that one can expect the American public to understand that it is sometimes desirable to keep a weapon in readiness for use only in extreme emergency; and as soon as the potentialities of nuclear weapons are revealed to the American people, one can be sure that they will support all attempts to make the use of such weapons impossible. Since its founding it has been published fromColumbia University. Germany, he argued, bore the main share of responsibility for the outbreak of the war. Give an example of where you have seen moment, John Lund, Paul S. Vickery, P. Scott Corbett, Todd Pfannestiel, Volker Janssen, The Language of Composition: Reading, Writing, Rhetoric, Lawrence Scanlon, Renee H. Shea, Robin Dissin Aufses, Eric Hinderaker, James A. Henretta, Rebecca Edwards, Robert O. Self. Palmer, D. (2011). Philosophical Studies, 166, 553573. Certainly, the could have done otherwise clause is indicative of one role for alternate possibilities (perhaps the most obvious): namely, making available other options at a given time. If an international agreement is not concluded immediately after the first demonstration, this will mean a flying start toward an unlimited armaments race. This is supposed to show that even if we think we have alternative possibilities, we don't actually. Even if we can retain our leadership in basic knowledge of nucleonics for a certain time by maintaining secrecy as to all results achieved on this and associated Projects, it would be foolish to hope that this can protect us for more than a few years. In the war to which such an armaments race is likely to lead, the United States, with its agglomeration of population and industry in comparatively few metropolitan districts, will be at a disadvantage compared to nations whose populations and industry are scattered over large areas. Russia is known to be mining radium on its own territory; and even if we do not know the size of the deposits discovered so far in the USSR, the probability that no large reserves of uranium will be found in a country which covers one-fifth of the land area of the earth (and whose sphere of influence takes in additional territory) is too small to serve as a basis for security. Every attempt to impede the international control agencies would have to be considered equivalent to denunciation of the agreement. In both (1) and (2), S is morally responsible for E in W2 because, within each scenario, S satisfies PAP(s) in W2; and, as we have seen, PAP(s) provides sufficient justification for the ascription of moral responsibility. Furthermore one may suggest that other nations are now, or will soon be, not entirely unaware of our present achievements, and that consequently the postponement of a demonstration may serve no useful purpose as far as the avoidance of an armaments race is concerned, and may only create additional mistrust, thus worsening rather than improving the chances of an ultimate accord on the international control of nuclear explosives. While weve yet to see cars hurtling by unimpeded 16 feet above ground as Le Corbusier wished, various methods of separating cars from pedestrians have been attempted in cities around the world. Whatever E happens to be, it is congruent across the different worlds within each respective scenario: E is congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 1 and congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 2. The Principle of Alternate Possibilities as Sufficient but not Necessary for Moral Responsibility: A way to Avoid the Frankfurt Counter-Example, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11406-016-9690-2, Moral Responsibility, Alternative Possibilities, and Acting on Ones Own, Individually Sufficient and Disjunctively Necessary Conditions for Moral Responsibility, The Robustness Requirement on Alternative Possibilities, Problems with Rowlands Practical Conciliationism, How (not) to construct worlds with responsibility, In Search of the Trinity: A Dilemma for Parfits Conciliatory Project, Being and holding responsible: Reconciling the disputants through a meaning-based Strawsonian account, Lueck, Bryan: Obligation and the fact of sense, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2019, ISBN: 978 1 4744 4272 5. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. PDF | On Sep 1, 2002, I. Scobbie published Tom Franck's Fairness | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate An agent is morally responsible for performing a given act A only if he or she could have done otherwise. British scientists know as much as we do about the basic wartime progress of nucleonics -- if not of the specific processes used in our engineering developments -- and the role which French nuclear physicists have played in the pre-war development of this field, plus their occasional contact with our Projects, will enable them to catch up rapidly, at least as far as basic scientific discoveries are concerned. In the scenario above, involving Jones and the counterfactual intervener, Black or even in similar Frankfurt-style scenarios arguably clauses (a) and (b) are violated. The answer to this question was given above -- the compelling reason for creating this weapon with such speed was our fear that Germany had the technical skill necessary to develop such a weapon and that the German government had no moral restraints regarding its use. I conclude by arguing that while neither PAP(s) nor the twin world condition is necessary for an ascription of moral responsibility, given that each nevertheless makes reference to alternate possibilities in some form or other (as yet to be discussed), what is necessary is that one of these condition is satisfied: for where both fail to be satisfied, one cannot hold the agent of action morally responsible. I argue that PAP does not need to be endorsed as a necessary condition for moral responsibility and, in fact, presenting PAP as a sufficient condition maintains its usefulness as a maxim for moral accountability whilst avoiding . This site is using cookies under cookie policy . It could be suggested that the danger of destruction by nuclear weapons can be avoided -- at least as far as this country is concerned -- either by keeping our discoveries secret for an indefinite time, or else by developing our nuclear armaments at such a pace that no other nations would think of attacking us from fear of overwhelming retaliation. Complete the sentence in a way that shows you understand the meaning of the italicized vocabulary word. (Frankfurt 1969, p.835)Footnote 1. Analysis, 61(4), 335340. Where S is coerced into doing E, for example, we would not want to say that S is morally responsible, especially where the coercion is such that it eliminates all morally acceptable alternatives. Leon, F., & Tognazzini, N. A. When discussing alternate possibilities, then, the notion of alternate possibilities should be understood to mean that there is at least one alternate possibility that is considered morally praiseworthy, or at the very least not immoral.
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